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Part One The Secret of the Veda
Chapter I
The Problem and Its Solution
IS THERE at all or is there still a secret of the Veda? According to current conceptions the heart of that ancient mystery has been plucked out and revealed to the gaze of all, or rather no real secret ever existed. The hymns of the Veda are the sacrificial compositions of a primitive and still barbarous race written around a system of ceremonial and propitiatory rites, addressed to personified Powers of Nature and replete with a confused mass of half-formed myth and crude astronomical allegories yet in the making. Only in the later hymns do we perceive the first appearance of deeper psychological and moral ideas —borrowed, some think, from the hostile Dravidians, the “robbers” and “Veda-haters” freely cursed in the hymns themselves, —and, however acquired, the first seed of the later Vedantic speculations. This modern theory is in accord with the received idea of a rapid human evolution from the quite recent savage; it is supported by an imposing apparatus of critical research and upheld by a number of Sciences, unhappily still young and still largely conjectural in their methods and shifting in their results, —Comparative Philology, Comparative Mythology and the Science of Comparative Religion. It is my object in these chapters to suggest a new view of the ancient problem. I do not propose to use a negative and destructive method directed against the received solutions, but simply to present, positively and constructively, a larger and, in some sort, a complementary hypothesis built upon broader foundations, —a hypothesis which, in addition, may shed light on one or two important problems in the history of ancient thought and cult left very insufficiently solved by the ordinary theories. We have in the Rig Veda, —the true and only Veda in the estimation of European scholars, —a body of sacrificial hymns
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couched in a very ancient language which presents a number of almost insoluble difficulties. It is full of ancient forms and
words which do not appear in later speech and have often to be fixed in some doubtful sense by intelligent conjecture;
a mass even of the words that it has in common with classical Sanskrit seem to bear or at least to admit another significance
than in the later literary tongue; and a multitude of its vocables, especially the most common, those which are most vital to
the sense, are capable of a surprising number of unconnected significances which may give, according to our preference in
selection, quite different complexions to whole passages, whole hymns and even to the whole thought of the Veda. In the course
of several thousands of years there have been at least three considerable attempts, entirely differing from each other in their
methods and results, to fix the sense of these ancient litanies. One of these is prehistoric in time and exists only by fragments
in the Brahmanas and Upanishads; but we possess in its entirety the traditional interpretation of the Indian scholar Sayana and
we have in our own day the interpretation constructed after an immense labour of comparison and conjecture by modern
European scholarship. Both of them present one characteristic in common, the extraordinary incoherence and poverty of sense
which their results stamp upon the ancient hymns. The separate lines can be given, whether naturally or by force of conjecture,
a good sense or a sense that hangs together; the diction that results, if garish in style, if loaded with otiose and decorative
epithets, if developing extraordinarily little of meaning in an amazing mass of gaudy figure and verbiage, can be made to run
into intelligible sentences; but when we come to read the hymns as a whole we seem to be in the presence of men who, unlike
the early writers of other races, were incapable of coherent and natural expression or of connected thought. Except in the briefer
and simpler hymns, the language tends to be either obscure or artificial; the thoughts are either unconnected or have to be
forced and beaten by the interpreter into a whole. The scholar in dealing with his text is obliged to substitute for interpretation
a process almost of fabrication. We feel that he is not so much
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revealing the sense as hammering and forging rebellious material into some sort of shape and consistency.
Yet these obscure and barbarous compositions have had the most splendid good fortune in all literary history. They have been
the reputed source not only of some of the world’s richest and profoundest religions, but of some of its subtlest metaphysical
philosophies. In the fixed tradition of thousands of years they have been revered as the origin and standard of all that can
be held as authoritative and true in Brahmana and Upanishad, in Tantra and Purana, in the doctrines of great philosophical
schools and in the teachings of famous saints and sages. The name borne by them was Veda, the knowledge,
—the received
name for the highest spiritual truth of which the human mind is capable. But if we accept the current interpretations, whether
Sayana’s or the modern theory, the whole of this sublime and sacred reputation is a colossal fiction. The hymns are, on the
contrary, nothing more than the naive superstitious fancies of untaught and materialistic barbarians concerned only with the
most external gains and enjoyments and ignorant of all but the most elementary moral notions or religious aspirations. Nor
do occasional passages, quite out of harmony with their general spirit, destroy this total impression. The true foundation
or starting-point of the later religions and philosophies is the Upanishads, which have then to be conceived as a revolt of philosophical and speculative minds against the ritualistic materialism of the Vedas.
But this conception, supported by misleading European parallels, really explains nothing. Such profound and ultimate
thoughts, such systems of subtle and elaborate psychology as are found in the substance of the Upanishads, do not spring out of
a previous void. The human mind in its progress marches from knowledge to knowledge, or it renews and enlarges previous
knowledge that has been obscured and overlaid, or it seizes on old imperfect clues and is led by them to new discoveries. The
thought of the Upanishads supposes great origins anterior to itself, and these in the ordinary theories are lacking. The hypothesis, invented to fill the gap, that these ideas were borrowed
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by barbarous Aryan invaders from the civilised Dravidians, is a conjecture supported only by other conjectures. It is indeed
coming to be doubted whether the whole story of an Aryan invasion through the Punjab is not a myth of the philologists.
Now, in ancient Europe the schools of intellectual philosophy were preceded by the secret doctrines of the mystics; Orphic
and Eleusinian mysteries prepared the rich soil of mentality out of which sprang Pythagoras and Plato. A similar starting-point
is at least probable for the later march of thought in India. Much indeed of the forms and symbols of thought which we find in the
Upanishads, much of the substance of the Brahmanas supposes a period in India in which thought took the form or the veil of
secret teachings such as those of the Greek mysteries.
Another hiatus left by the received theories is the gulf that
divides the material worship of external Nature-Powers in the Veda from the developed religion of the Greeks and from the
psychological and spiritual ideas we find attached to the functions of the Gods in the Upanishads and Puranas. We may accept
for the present the theory that the earliest fully intelligent form of human religion is necessarily,
—since man on earth begins
from the external and proceeds to the internal, —a worship of outward Nature-Powers invested with the consciousness and the
personality that he finds in his own being.
Agni in the Veda is avowedly Fire; Surya is the Sun, Parjanya
the Raincloud, Usha the Dawn; and if the material origin or function of some other Gods is less trenchantly clear, it is easy to
render the obscure precise by philological inferences or ingenious speculation. But when we come to the worship of the Greeks
not much later in date than the Veda, according to modern ideas of chronology, we find a significant change. The material
attributes of the Gods are effaced or have become subordinate to psychological conceptions. The impetuous God of Fire has
been converted into a lame God of Labour; Apollo, the Sun, presides over poetical and prophetic inspiration; Athene, who
may plausibly be identified as in origin a Dawn-Goddess, has lost all memory of her material functions and is the wise, strong
and pure Goddess of Knowledge; and there are other deities
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also, Gods of War, Love, Beauty, whose material functions have disappeared if they ever existed. It is not enough to say that this
change was inevitable with the progress of human civilisation: the process also of the change demands inquiry and elucidation.
We see the same revolution effected in the Puranas partly by the substitution of other divine names and figures, but also in part
by the same obscure process that we observe in the evolution of Greek mythology. The river Saraswati has become the Muse and
Goddess of Learning; Vishnu and Rudra of the Vedas are now the supreme Godhead, members of a divine Triad and expressive
separately of conservative and destructive process in the cosmos. In the Isha Upanishad we find an appeal to Surya as a God of
revelatory knowledge by whose action we can arrive at the highest truth. This, too, is his function in the sacred Vedic formula
of the Gayatri which was for thousands of years repeated by every Brahmin in his daily meditation; and we may note that
this formula is a verse from the Rig Veda, from a hymn of the Rishi Vishwamitra. In the same Upanishad, Agni is invoked for
purely moral functions as the purifier from sin, the leader of the soul by the good path to the divine Bliss, and he seems to be
identified with the power of the will and responsible for human actions. In other Upanishads the Gods are clearly the symbols of
sense-functions in man. Soma, the plant which yielded the mystic wine for the Vedic sacrifice, has become not only the God of the
moon, but manifests himself as mind in the human being. These evolutions suppose some period, posterior to the early material
worship or superior Pantheistic Animism attributed to the Vedas and prior to the developed Puranic mythology, in which the gods
became invested with deeper psychological functions, a period which may well have been the Age of the Mysteries. As things
stand, a gap is left or else has been created by our exclusive preoccupation with the naturalistic element in the religion of
the Vedic Rishis.
I suggest that the gulf is of our own creation and does
not really exist in the ancient sacred writings. The hypothesis I propose is that the Rig Veda is itself the one considerable
document that remains to us from the early period of human
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thought of which the historic Eleusinian and Orphic mysteries were the failing remnants, when the spiritual and psychological
knowledge of the race was concealed, for reasons now difficult to determine, in a veil of concrete and material figures
and symbols which protected the sense from the profane and revealed it to the initiated. One of the leading principles of the
mystics was the sacredness and secrecy of self-knowledge and the true knowledge of the Gods. This wisdom was, they thought,
unfit, perhaps even dangerous to the ordinary human mind or in any case liable to perversion and misuse and loss of virtue if
revealed to vulgar and unpurified spirits. Hence they favoured the existence of an outer worship, effective but imperfect, for
the profane, an inner discipline for the initiate, and clothed their language in words and images which had, equally, a spiritual
sense for the elect, a concrete sense for the mass of ordinary worshippers. The Vedic hymns were conceived and constructed
on this principle. Their formulas and ceremonies are, overtly, the details of an outward ritual devised for the Pantheistic Nature
Worship which was then the common religion, covertly the sacred words, the effective symbols of a spiritual experience and
knowledge and a psychological discipline of self-culture which were then the highest achievement of the human race. The ritual
system recognised by Sayana may, in its externalities, stand; the naturalistic sense discovered by European scholarship may, in
its general conceptions, be accepted; but behind them there is always the true and still hidden secret of the Veda,
—the secret
words, ninya vacamsi, which were spoken for the purified in soul and the awakened in knowledge. To disengage this less obvious
but more important sense by fixing the import of Vedic terms, the sense of Vedic symbols and the psychological functions of
the Gods is thus a difficult but necessary task, for which these chapters and the translations that accompany them are only a
preparation.
The hypothesis, if it proves to be valid, will have three ad
vantages. It will elucidate simply and effectively the parts of the Upanishads that remain yet unintelligible or ill-understood as
well as much of the origins of the Puranas. It will explain and
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justify rationally the whole ancient tradition of India; for it will be found that, in sober truth, the Vedanta, Purana, Tantra, the
philosophical schools and the great Indian religions do go back in their source to Vedic origins. We can see there in their original
seed or in their early or even primitive forms the fundamental conceptions of later Indian thought. Thus a natural starting
point will be provided for a sounder study of Comparative Religion in the Indian field. Instead of wandering amid insecure
speculations or having to account for impossible conversions and unexplained transitions we shall have a clue to a natural and
progressive development satisfying to the reason. Incidentally, some light may be thrown on the obscurities of early cult and
myth in other ancient nations. Finally, the incoherencies of the Vedic texts will at once be explained and disappear. They exist
in appearance only, because the real thread of the sense is to be found in an inner meaning. That thread found, the hymns appear
as logical and organic wholes and the expression, though alien in type to our modern ways of thinking and speaking, becomes,
in its own style, just and precise and sins rather by economy of phrase than by excess, by over-pregnancy rather than by poverty
of sense. The Veda ceases to be merely an interesting remnant of barbarism and takes rank among the most important of the
world’s early Scriptures.
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